While the role of Caribbean immigrants in the “New Negro” movement in the United States is now well established, the concurrent militancy of black Caribbean workers in Panama is much less understood. Examines the rise and fall of Afro-Antillano militancy in both the U.S.-controlled Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama from 1914–1921.
Suggests an orientation for the scrutiny of black lay societies in Brazil. Ethnicity in the formation and development of black lay societies; Changes in the development of black lay societies